Research Methods for Education

Sandra L. Dika is a professor of educational research at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, where she has taught graduate-level research methods courses since 2010 and served as Ph.D. program director from 2018 to 2025. A first-generation college graduate, she earned her B.Ed. and M.Sc. from the University of Alberta and her Ph.D. in educational research and evaluation from Virginia Tech. Prior to UNC Charlotte, she held positions at the University of Puerto Rico-Mayagueez, Virginia Tech, and Brown University. Dr. Dika's research focuses on college access, student success, and equity for historically underserved and minoritized populations. She has published more than 75 peer-reviewed articles, book chapters, and proceedings papers, and has led research funded by the Spencer Foundation, National Science Foundation, and the John M. Belk Endowment. She also serves as an external evaluator for STEM education initiatives. Her teaching and mentorship have earned her the UNC Charlotte College of Education's Excellence in Teaching and Excellence in Research Awards, and she was named a Catalyst Research Fellow in 2018. She has chaired or served on over 40 dissertation committees and has mentored more than 20 student co-authors, with two of her dissertation advisees receiving dissertation of the year awards. Dr. Dika also contributes to graduate curriculum development in research methodology. Outside of academia, she enjoys hiking, traveling, cheering on her children's sports and hobbies, and connecting with friends and family over coffee or a shared meal. Gregory J. Privitera is a three-time national-award-winning author and a professor of psychology at St. Bonaventure University where he is a recipient of its highest teaching honor, The Award for Professional Excellence in Teaching, and its highest honor for scholarship, The Award for Professional Excellence in Research and Publication. Dr. Privitera received his PhD in behavioral neuroscience in the field of psychology at the State University of New York at Buffalo and continued with his postdoctoral research at Arizona State University. His texts span diverse topics in psychology and the behavioral sciences and include an introductory psychology text, three statistics texts, two research methods texts, and multiple other texts bridging knowledge creation across health, health care, and analytics. In addition, Dr. Privitera has authored more than three dozen peer-reviewed papers aimed at advancing our understanding of health, health literacy, and informing policy in health care. His research has earned recognition by the American Psychological Association and in media to include Oprah's Magazine, Time Magazine, and the Wall Street Journal. He mentors a variety of undergraduate research projects at St. Bonaventure University, where dozens of students, many of whom have gone on to earn graduate and doctoral degrees at various institutions, have coauthored and presented research work. In addition to his teaching, research, and advisement, Dr. Privitera is a veteran of the U.S. Marine Corps, is an identical twin, and is married with two daughters, Grace Ann and Charlotte Jane, and two sons, Aiden Andrew and Luca James.

Preface Acknowledgments About the Authors Chapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Thinking and the Science of Education Introduction The Scientific Method and Its Relevance in Educational Research Approaches in Acquiring Knowledge Generating and Converting Ideas to Hypotheses and Theories Performing a Literature Review Testing Your Idea: Confirmation and Disconfirmation Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Classroom Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Question Answer Key Chapter 2: Research Ethics Introduction Ethics in Educational Research The Need for Ethics Committees in Research: A Historical Synopsis Ethics in Focus: Classic Examples from Psychology Human Participant Research: IRBs and the AERA Code of Ethics Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 3: Scientific Variables, Measurement, and Instrumentation Introduction Defining Variables, Constructs, and Operational Definitions Types of Variables Scales of Measurement Classifying Data Collection Instruments Tests and Measures Questionnaire Items and Administration Concepts in Validity and Reliability of Measurement Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 4: Sampling From Populations Introduction Why Do Researchers Select Samples? Subjects, Participants, and Sampling Methods Methods of Sampling: Nonprobability Sampling Methods of Sampling: Probability Sampling Sampling Error and Standard Error of the Mean Potential Biases in Sampling Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 5: Choosing a Research Design Introduction Designing a Study to Answer a Question Categories of Research Design Internal and External Validity Demonstrating Cause in an Experiment Threats to the Internal Validity of a Research Study Threats to the External Validity of a Research Study External Validity, Experimentation, and Realism Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 6: Naturalistic and Existing Data Research Designs Introduction An Overview of Naturalistic Design The Research Setting: Natural and Contrived Settings Techniques for Making Unobtrusive Observations Operationalizing Observations Quantifying Observations An Overview of Existing Data Designs Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 7 : Survey and Correlational Research Designs Introduction An Overview of Survey Designs Surveys, Sampling, and Nonresponse Bias Steps in Administering a Survey The Structure of Correlational Designs Describing the Relationship Between Variables Limitations in Interpretation Correlation, Regression, and Prediction Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 8: Introduction to Qualitative Research Introduction What Is Qualitative Research? Distinctions Between Qualitative and Quantitative Research Three Theoretical Perspectives in Qualitative Research Steps in Qualitative Research Role of the Researcher and Entry Into the Field Sampling in Qualitative Research Types of Qualitative Data Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Classroom Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 9: Phenomenology, Ethnography, and Grounded Theory Designs Introduction An Overview of Phenomenology Designs An Overview of Ethnography Designs An Overview of Netnography and Autoethnography Designs An Overview of Grounded Theory Designs Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Classroom Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 10: Narrative Inquiry, Case Study, and Critical Theory Designs Introduction Narrative Research Designs Case Study Designs Critical Theory Designs Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Question Answer Key Chapter 11: Quasi-Experimental Designs Introduction Quasi-Experiments and Quasi-Independent Variables One-Group Designs Quasi-Experimental Design: Nonequivalent Control Group Designs Quasi-Experimental Design: Time-Series Designs Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 12: Single-Case Experimental Designs Introduction Single-Case Designs: Reversal, Multiple-Baseline, Changing Criterion, Alternate Treatment Standards for Single-Case Designs Analysis of Single-Case Designs Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 13: Group Experimental Designs: Between Subjects, Within Subjects, and Factorial Introduction Conducting Experiments: Between-Subjects Design Creating Groups and Control of the Independent Variable Conducting Experiments: Within-Subjects Design Conducting Experiments: Factorial Experimental Designs Use of Test Statistics for Group Experimental Designs Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 14: Mixed Methods Research Designs Introduction Applying a Mixed Methods Design Types of Mixed Methods Research Designs Advanced Mixed Methods Designs Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 15: Action Research Introduction Distinguishing Traditional Research from Action Research Types of Action Research The Process of Conducting Action Research Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 16: Program Evaluation Introduction The Fundamentals of Program Evaluation Program Evaluation Standards, Uses, and Limitations Classifications of Program Evaluation Models for Program Evaluation Steps in Program Evaluation Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 17: Analysis and Interpretation: Exposition of Data Introduction Descriptive Statistics: Why Summarize Data? Frequency Distributions: Tables and Graphs Measures of Central Tendency Measures of Variability Graphing Means and Correlations Using Correlation to Describe Reliability Standard Scores, z Scores, Percentile Ranks, and Age/Grade Equivalents Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 18: Analysis and Interpretation: Making Inferences about Data Introduction Inferential Statistics: What Are We Making Inferences About? Types of Error and Power Parametric Tests: Applying the Decision Tree Main Effects and Interactions Nonparametric Tests: Applying the Decision Tree Effect Size: How Big Is an Effect in the Population? Estimation: What Are the Possible Values of a Parameter? Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 19: Analysis and Interpretation: Making Inferences About Qualitative Data Introduction Qualitative Versus Quantitative Data Analysis Decisions About How to Record Narrative Data Decisions About Qualitative Data Analysis and Interpretation General Process of Qualitative Data Analysis Interpretations Made Using Different Qualitative Designs in the Data Analysis Process Criteria of Trustworthiness Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Class Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Chapter 20: Communicating Research: Preparing Manuscripts, Posters, and Talks Introduction Elements of Communication Writing a Manuscript: Writing Style and Language Elements of an APA-Style Manuscript Literature Reviews Reporting Observations in Qualitative Research Poster Presentations and Professional Talks Chapter Summary Key Terms Review Questions Questions and Activities for Classroom Discussion Learning Check Answer Key Review Questions Answer Key Appendix A: APA-Style Writing, Sample Manuscript, and Posters Appendix B: Instructions for Randomizing and Counterbalancing References Index

Comprehensive, easy to understand, covers a broad variety of topics. -- Jagdish Khubchandani The strength of [this] book lies in its extensive coverage of a wide range of research designs, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques relevant to educational research. It expertly guides students through quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches, equipping them with the tools necessary to navigate the complexities of educational research. The inclusion of real-world examples and case studies further enhances the students' understanding of the application of research methods in educational settings. [T]he book is written in a clear and accessible manner. -- Dunja Trunk Has detailed information on various topics so that I can use with either my master's or doctoral students. -- Tracy M. Walker This text provides a comprehensive and detailed introduction and overview to qualitative methodologies, methods of data collection and analysis, and guidelines for rigorous and ethical conduct of qualitative inquiry, all through a critical theoretical lens. -- Amira Proweller, PhD Privitera and Ahlgrim-Delzell have masterfully approached educational research methods in the way this discipline deserves: through a problem-focused paradigm that outlines the process students will follow in deciding how to tackle the thorny problems of our beloved profession. As a current K-12 practitioner with a doctorate in higher education administration who has taught graduate-level research methods for the past 15 years, I strongly recommend this text. It's readable, problem-focused, accessible, and edifying. -- Dr. Jeff Savage Privitera concisely and simply addresses the research process and gives students the ability to understand the basic research strategies. -- Scott Drabenstot Provides great examples throughout and conceptually pushes students to think about research methods in terms of what they read and what they do. -- Erin M. Ramirez * Pre-revision review * This text provides a broad overview and introduction to research methods and processes for teacher researchers. It allows the reader to understand the options of how to move forward with their research project in education. -- Dr. Stefanie Boutelier * Pre-revision review * A well-organized, articulate, and engaging introduction to the principles of educational research. -- Mary Dereshiwsky * Pre-revision review * The book offers clear, applicable examples and discussions for important lessons in research. It is formatted for readability and engagement. Students would find the text boxes and prompts encouraging as they work to understand new concepts and processes. -- Maria Gray * Pre-revision review *